Nutrition 330: Introductory Nutrition

Study Guide

Unit 2: Dietary Reference Intakes and Diet‑Planning Guides

Introduction

Various countries have established nutrient standards and dietary guidelines to promote optimal health and provide a means of surveying the nutritional status of their citizens. The standard used in Canada is the Dietary Reference Intakes, which is also used in the United States. Diet‑planning guides used in Canada and in the United States have very different designs but are similar with respect to the diets they recommend. To apply these guides correctly, one must understand their strengths and limitations, which we will discuss in this unit. This discussion is reinforced by the course assignment using Canada’s Food Guide. Finally, we look at nutrition information on food labels.

This unit consists of three sections:

Section 1: Dietary Reference Intakes
Section 2: Diet‑Planning Guides
Section 3: Nutrition Information on Food Labels

Objectives

After completing this unit, you should be able to

1. identify the four sets of standards for nutrient intake within the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI).
2. discuss the appropriate use of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI) and identify some of their limitations.
3. discuss how the recommendation for energy intake is established.
4. list the principles on which diet‑planning guides are formulated and explain each principle, using examples.
5. explain how to use Canada’s Food Guide by
   • naming the three general food categories and describing their proportions on the Eat Well Plate.
   • listing at least six different foods within each food category.
   • explaining the benefits of the types of foods recommended and their distribution.
   • describing what the term whole grain means.
   • listing at least five plant-based proteins.
   • listing at least five foods containing healthy fat and four main sources of saturated fat.
   • explaining how to reduce intake of saturated fat, sodium, and added sugars.
   • listing at least six examples of highly processed foods and explaining the rationale for limiting them.
   • explaining why water is the beverage of choice.
   • describing at least four types of information found on food labels and explaining how to use this information.
   • discussing the strengths and limitations of the new Canada’s Food Guide.
6. list five types of information permitted on a food label.
7. interpret the information on a nutrition facts label and use percent daily value to differentiate between foods.
8. list two types of nutrition or health claims permitted on a food label.

Section 1: Dietary Reference Intakes

Introduction

Nutritional guidance has been provided to Canadians since 1942, starting with Canada’s Official Food Rules and continuing on to the current Canada’s Food Guide. During this period, many revisions have been made to the nutrient requirements and dietary recommendations. Revisions are necessary to reflect advances in the knowledge of dietary requirements, changes in educational techniques, changes in the Canadian food supply, and changes in food consumption patterns.

From the 1940s until recently, Canada used Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI), while the United States used Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). However, a new set of standards has now been established, the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI), and is used in both Canada and the United States. The RDA is one of four sets of standards within the DRI. RNI is now obsolete.

Objectives

After completing this section, you should be able to

• identify the four sets of standards for nutrient intake within the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI).
• discuss the appropriate use of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI), and identify some of their limitations.
• discuss how the recommendations for energy intake are established.

Key Terms

After completing Section 2.1, you should be able to define and use the following terms in context:

Dietary Reference Intakes

The first step in setting standards and guidelines is to determine the appropriate levels of required nutrients. Researchers and nutrition experts review the available scientific literature (as described in Unit 1) and create technical recommendations for use by nutrition professionals. The foundation for all nutrition recommendations in Canada and the United States is the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI), which consist of four sets of specific standards. These standards are listed in the bullet points on page 18 and described on pages 19 and 20 of the eText. These standards are as follows:

Estimated Average Requirements

Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) are average nutrient requirements; that is, they meet the needs of half the population. EAR is used by nutrition and health professionals (e.g., daycare centres, seniors’ lodges) to plan group diets and to assess the adequacy of a diet in a specific population.

Recommended Dietary Allowances

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) are recommended intakes for vitamins, minerals, and protein that meet the needs for almost all healthy individuals with similar characteristics in a population (e.g., age, gender, body size, physiological state). The RDA is set sufficiently high to meet the body’s needs, while also reducing the risk of chronic disease. To ensure adequacy, the average requirement for a nutrient is increased by two standard deviations to cover the requirements of about 98 percent of the population. Thus, the RDA exceeds the needs of the majority—they are generous, yet safe and adequate.

Adequate Intakes

Adequate Intakes (AI) are established when there is insufficient scientific data to determine an RDA. The eText explains that AI is the average amount of a nutrient that the population actually consumes. The terms RDA and AI are used interchangeably in the eText and in this course. Read pages 19 and 20 carefully to gain a clear understanding of the differences between the two.

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) represent the level at which intakes of specific nutrients are not safe. When considering UL, the important thing to remember is that the body’s need for most nutrients falls within a range. When intakes fall below the minimum or above the maximum of the range, this may pose a danger. Figure 1-6: Inaccurate versus Accurate View of Nutrient Intakes (p. 20) illustrates this concept.

Using Nutrient Recommendations

RDA is best used to evaluate the adequacy of diets of population groups. They can also be used to estimate the risks of deficiencies for an individual, but only if the person’s intakes are averaged over a sufficient period of time.

A common mistake is to interpret intakes that are less than the recommended levels as deficient rather than as a measure of a probability of inadequacy that increases as intakes fall. RDA is only an educated guess of the exact nutrient levels people require. Consequently, adequate intakes are considered achieved when the diet provides 95 percent of the RDA or more. The further below the RDA of a nutrient that a person consumes, the more likely the person is to have low nutrient stores, which may lead to poor health and nutrient deficiency symptoms.

An excess of RDA obtained from ordinary foods does not typically pose a problem because the body can either absorb less or excrete the excess without any harm. However, if nutrient intake is too high (i.e., as a result of the regular use of supplements), adverse effects may occur.

Several limitations of the RDA should be recognized:

• RDA is established for healthy people with normal rates of intestinal absorption of nutrients. People suffering from an acute or chronic illness may have different needs for nutrients. Dietitians should be consulted to modify diets for special needs.
• RDA is set for only 26 nutrients. The body also needs other trace nutrients, which must be provided by a wide selection of foods.
• RDA is established without consideration of nutrient interactions (e.g., an unusually high intake of one nutrient may affect the requirement for other nutrients). For example, excess zinc will interfere with copper absorption, or excess protein may increase calcium excretion. Such nutrient interactions are of concern, especially when mega‑vitamin and mineral or protein supplements are used.
• In spite of increased interest in the physiological changes during the aging process, only limited data are available on the nutrient requirements of the elderly. RDA for the elderly is extrapolated mainly from those of younger adults.
• Nutrient requirements vary with body size, growth rate, or both. RDA is based on the average growth rate or physiological changes according to age. RDA may be somewhat inappropriate for individuals who have different growth spurts.

Recommendations for Energy Requirements

Energy requirements are compiled and expressed differently from RDA for nutrients. First, there is no safety margin given in the energy (or kilocalorie) recommendation as there is for nutrients. Second, energy is not consumed directly, but provided by the macronutrients: carbohydrate, fat, and protein. Energy recommendations are stated in two ways: Estimated Energy Requirements and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges.

• Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) is the average dietary energy intake that will maintain energy balance in a person with a healthy body weight and a healthy level of physical activity. The EER, stated as kilocalories per day, is an absolute amount. You can find EER for males and females of different ages in the front inside cover of the eText.

• Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) have been established for the energy‑yielding macronutrients, providing for a range of intakes of carbohydrate, fat, and protein that provide sufficient energy and nutrients while reducing risk of chronic diseases. AMDR values are listed in the eText on page 21. You will need to know these values.

In summary, energy requirements can be stated as an absolute value or as a distribution of kilocalories from macronutrients. For example, a 19‑year‑old female has an EER of 2403 kilocalories/day, and her diet should consist of 45 to 65 percent of kilocalories from carbohydrate, 20 to 35 percent of kilocalories from fat, and 10 to 35 percent of kilocalories from protein.

Study Questions

Answer the Study Questions for this section to test your knowledge of what you just learned.

Section 2: Diet‑Planning Guides

Introduction

To translate the RDA values into actual foods (we eat foods, not nutrients), we must develop diet‑planning guides. Through selection of an appropriate amount of food from each food group, a person can be reasonably certain of consuming all the essential nutrients the body needs. The most widely used guide in Canada is Canada’s Food Guide.

Canadian and American diet‑planning guides are formulated following some basic principles: adequacy, balance, calorie control, nutrient density, moderation, and variety.

Objectives

After completing this section, you should be able to

• list the principles on which diet‑planning guides are formulated and explain each principle, using examples.
• explain how to use Canada’s Food Guide by
  • naming the three general food categories and describing their proportions on the Eat Well Plate.
  • listing at least six different foods within each food category.
  • explaining the benefits of the types of foods recommended and their distribution.
  • describing what the term whole grain means.
  • listing at least five plant-based proteins.
  • listing at least five foods containing healthy fat and four main sources of saturated fat.
  • explaining how to reduce intake of saturated fat, sodium, and added sugars.
  • listing at least six examples of highly processed foods and explaining the rationale for limiting them.
  • explaining why water is the beverage of choice.
  • describing at least four types of information found on food labels and explaining how to use this information.
  • discussing the strengths and limitations of the new Canada’s Food Guide.

Key Terms

After completing Section 2.2, you should be able to define and use the following terms in context:

Diet-Planning Principles

The diet-planning principles are well presented in the eText. However, elaboration is needed on the principle of moderation. The eText mentions fats and sugar as constituents to be limited to avoid excess energy.

Salt and alcohol should also be used in moderation. Moderating all of these constituents helps to reduce the risk of such health problems as obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, dental caries, diabetes, hypertension, and so on. Moderation means cutting down, not cutting out.

This unit states several times that the diet should be reduced in its content of fat, especially saturated fat. This is based on the viewpoint that has been strongly held for many years that saturated fat plays a major role in the causation of heart disease and that a diet with a relatively high content of fat leads to weight gain. Findings in recent years suggest that both of these relationships are actually quite weak. Accordingly, dietary recommendations now place major emphasis on the type of fat, not the total amount. As part of this, the diet should emphasize unsaturated fats rather than saturated fat.

A Brief History of Canada’s Food Guide from 1942 to Present

The first food guide for Canadians appeared nearly 80 years ago. Wartime food rationing created a public health concern for preventing nutritional deficiencies and improving the health of the population. Canada’s Official Food Rules was launched in 1942 and identified six food groups (Milk; Fruits; Vegetables; Cereals and Bread; Meat, Fish, etc.; and Eggs) along with specified daily intakes.

Since then, the food guide has undergone many changes to name, messaging, and recommended foods. You may be most familiar with the seventh revision, Eating Well with Canada’s Food Guide, published in 2007. This rainbow-themed six-page guide was based on four food groups (Vegetables and Fruit; Grain Products; Milk and Alternatives; and Meat and Alternatives). It provided recommended numbers of servings in each group and included guidance on types and amounts of added oils and fats to consume. A feature of this guide was the increased emphasis on reducing risk of chronic, nutrition-related diseases.

In January 2019, the latest edition of Canada’s Food Guide was released by Health Canada. This new guide will be discussed in greater detail and is the resource you will use in NUTR 330.

Although the food guide has undergone different looks, new names, and new messages, the general objective has always been guiding food selection and promoting the nutritional well-being of the Canadian population.

Optional: A summary of Canada’s food guides are available on the Government of Canada website: History of Canada’s Food Guides from 1942 to 2007.

The new version of Canada’s Food Guide has undergone a substantial transformation from all previous versions. The previous guide placed meat and alternatives in one food group and milk and alternatives in another. The new food guide places these foods into one food group, known as protein foods. Another major change is that the new food guide does not state the recommended amounts of foods. The new guide recognizes that healthy eating is more than the foods you eat. It is about where, when, and why you eat. Another significant change is its entirely digital, web-based format. Canada’s Food Guide can now be easily accessed from any mobile device and is highly interactive and colourful.

Canada’s Dietary Guidelines

These guidelines, based on best-available scientific evidence, are the starting point for Health Canada’s nutrition policies, programs, and educational resources. The underlying principles of Canada’s Food Guide are based on Canada’s Dietary Guidelines and are summarized as follows:

GUIDELINE 1

Nutritious foods are the foundation for healthy eating.

• Vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and protein foods should be consumed regularly. Among protein foods, consume plant-based more often.
  • Protein foods include legumes, nuts, seeds, tofu, fortified soy beverage, fish, shellfish, eggs, poultry, lean red meat including wild game, lower fat milk, lower fat yogurts, lower fat kefir, and cheeses lower in fat and sodium.
• Foods that contain mostly unsaturated fat should replace foods that contain mostly saturated fat.
• Water should be the beverage of choice.

GUIDELINE 2

Processed or prepared foods and beverages that contribute to excess sodium, free sugars, or saturated fat undermine healthy eating and should not be consumed regularly.

GUIDELINE 3

Food skills are needed to navigate the complex food environment and support healthy eating.

• Cooking and food preparation using nutritious foods should be promoted as a practical way to support healthy eating.
• Food labels should be promoted as a tool to help Canadians make informed food choices.

Source: Health Canada. (2019, May 9). Canada’s dietary guidelines. Government of Canada. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/guidelines/section-1-foundation-for-healthy-eating/

These guidelines are the result of an extensive systematic and consultative review of the current scientific evidence investigating the relationship between food and health. Input was sought from a long list of health professionals, academics, and national Indigenous organizations to name a few. Health Canada included much public consultation to gain insight into what is relevant and clear to Canadians. Dietary guidelines from other countries were also examined to gain a broader perspective on content and use. Of note is the deliberate prohibition of lobbying from the food industry, including agriculture. The full report is extensive and can be accessed from the Canada’s Food Guide home page. The key point to remember here is that Canada’s Food Guide is the practical application of Canada’s Dietary Guidelines for the general public.

Optional: For more information, visit the Canada’s Dietary Guidelines website.

Canada’s Food Guide, 2019

Go to the Canada’s Food Guide home page to open the guide and navigate through the site. Keep this link open as you read through the following sections:

The new Canada’s Food Guide is represented as one image—the Eat Well Plate. The actual recommendations fall into two main categories: healthy food choices and healthy eating habits.

• Healthy food choices describes the pattern of eating that provides for adequate nutrition while reducing risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and some forms of cancer. This section is the focus for NUTR 330.
• Healthy eating is more than the foods you eat. It is also about healthy eating such as the where, when, why, and how you eat. Although this is an important part of healthy eating, the content is for your own interest and benefit.

Healthy Food Choices

Information about healthy food choices is available in Canada’s Food Guide. The following is a snapshot of the recommendations for a healthy diet. The key message is to make it a habit to eat a variety of healthy foods each day.

1. Eat plenty of vegetables and fruits, whole grains, and protein foods. Choose protein foods of plant origin, rather than animal origin, more often. Visit Healthy Food Choices for details about these foods, including examples, important nutrients, preparation tips, snacking ideas, and making healthy choices.
   • vegetables and fruits
     • Make half your plate vegetables and fruits.
     • Eat a wide variety of vegetables and fruits.
     • Vegetables and fruits are important sources of fibre, vitamins (especially vitamins A and C and folate), and minerals (especially magnesium and potassium).
     • Vegetables and fruits may lower risk of heart disease.
     • Fresh, frozen, and canned are all healthy options.
     • Choose whole or cut fruits and vegetables instead of their juices; replace juice with water.
     • Use healthy options for cooking and seasoning.
   • whole grains
     • Whole grains are higher in nutrients and fibre than refined grains.
     • Whole grains are important sources of fibre, vitamins, and minerals (especially thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, iron, zinc, magnesium, and potassium).
     • A diet high in fibre may help to lower risk of stroke, colon cancer, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes.
     • Whole wheat and multigrain foods may not be whole grain; always choose foods with the words whole grain followed by the name of the grain; e.g., whole grain oats, whole grain wheat, or 100% whole wheat.
   • protein foods
     • Protein foods provide protein, most vitamins (except vitamin C and folate), and all minerals.
     • Plant-based proteins can provide more fibre and less saturated fat than other types of protein foods; for that reason, they are beneficial in preventing heart disease.
     • Protein foods include eggs, lean meats and poultry, nuts and seeds, fish and shellfish, lower fat dairy products, beans, peas, and lentils, fortified soy beverages, tofu, and soybeans and other soy products.
   • making healthy choices
     • Choose foods that have little or no added sodium, sugars, or saturated fat.
     • Compare the nutrition facts table on foods to choose products that are lower in sodium, sugars, or saturated fat.
2. Choose foods with healthy fats.
   • Healthy fats are unsaturated fats such as olive, canola, peanut, sesame, soybean, flaxseed, safflower, and sunflower.
   • Choosing foods containing unsaturated fats instead of saturated fats can lower risk of heart disease.
   • Foods containing unsaturated fats include nuts, seeds, avocado, fatty fish, vegetable oils, and soft margarine.
   • Foods containing saturated fats include fatty meats, high-fat dairy products, some highly processed foods, and some tropical oils such as palm oil and coconut oil.
   • Fatty fish, including trout, salmon, herring, and mackerel, are good sources of healthy fats.
   • Limit foods that contain saturated fats. (See the website for examples of foods that contain saturated fat.)
3. Limit highly processed foods. If you choose these foods, eat them less often and in small amounts.
   • Highly processed foods are processed or prepared foods and drinks that add excess sodium, free sugars, or saturated fat to the diet. Click on the link for examples.
   • High sodium intake may increase blood pressure that can increase risk of heart disease.
   • High intake of foods and beverages with added sugars is associated with increased risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
   • A high intake of sugary drinks, including 100% fruit juice, is associated with an increased risk of cavities in children.
   • Replacing foods that contain mostly saturated fats with unsaturated fats can reduce risk of heart disease.
   • Processed meats can be high in sodium and saturated fat that increase heart disease risk.
   • High intake of processed meats may be linked to an increased risk of colon cancer.
4. Make water your drink of choice.
   • Water hydrates without adding calories, sugar, sodium, or saturated fat.
   • Drinking water replaces water lost by breathing, sweating, and excreting waste.
   • Choose water over fruit juices, even unsweetened ones.
   • Other healthy drink choices include unsweetened lower fat milk, unsweetened plant-based beverages such as soy beverage or almond beverage, and unsweetened coffee and tea.
   • Limit drinks such as sugary drinks, colas, alcoholic drinks, vegetable juices, and hot chocolate or specialty teas and coffees made with higher fat dairy.
   • Limit caffeine-containing drinks such as colas, tea, coffee, and some energy drinks, especially in children.

5. Use food labels.

   The information on food labels falls into several categories: Nutrition Facts Table; Ingredient List; Nutrition Claims; Food Allergen Labelling; and Date Labelling.

   • The nutrition facts table provides information about serving size, calories, other nutrients such as fats and sugar, and % daily values (%DV). The % DV can be used as a guide to compare nutrients in a product. For example, 5% DV or less is a little and 15% DV or more is a lot.
   • The ingredient list lists all ingredients by weight, starting with the ingredient weighing the most.
   • Nutrition claims include nutrient content claims and health claims. Go to Nutrition Claims to read about the permitted nutrient content and health claims on foods in Canada.
   • Food allergen labelling provides information to help avoid specific food allergens or sensitivities. See Allergens and Gluten Sources Labelling for a list of common food allergens that may appear on labels. Gluten and sulphites are other compounds that may be identified on food labels.
   • Date labelling provides date information such as best before, packaged on, and expiration.
6. Be aware of food marketing that can influence food choices. Go to Marketing Can Influence Your Food Choices to learn more about the many forms of food marketing and how food marketing can affect your food choices.

Source: Health Canada. (2019, December 17). Healthy food choices. Government of Canada. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-food-choices/

Healthy Eating Habits

This section on healthy eating habits in Canada’s Food Guide focuses on the environment within which we eat. The messaging may seem like common sense, but there is an increasing awareness and concern over the erosion of traditional mealtime patterns. Meals are eaten almost anywhere except the home and time to prepare meals is often limited. Health Canada has made an effort to reinforce the principle that healthy eating is more than just the foods we eat.

Here’s a snapshot of the key recommendations:

1. Be mindful of your eating habits.
2. Cook more often.
3. Enjoy your food.
4. Eat meals with others.

We recommend that you explore this section of Canada’s Food Guide for your own benefit.

Source: Health Canada. (2019, December 17). Healthy eating habits. Government of Canada. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-habits/

Canada’s Food Guide: Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:

• It is based on the most current evidence investigating the relationship between food and health.
• The Eat Well Plate is colourful and simple; half the plate is vegetables and fruit, one-quarter is grains; and the other quarter is foods rich in protein.
• The digital format is highly portable and appealing to the new generation of tech-minded Canadians.
• The website is limitless in capacity to provide as little or as much information a consumer wishes, and practical tips and recipes are embedded throughout the guide.
• The recommended diet is based on a pattern of eating instead of a prescription for specific types and amounts of foods and thus flexible in terms of caloric needs.
• The recommendations are applicable to a wide variety of ethnic and plant-based eating patterns.
• Information on how to use food labels is clearly provided.
• The recommendations extend beyond food itself. The positive behaviours of selecting, preparing, and consuming meals are included as part of healthy eating.

Limitations:

• The digital format may not appeal to some individuals and may not be accessible to people without Internet access or digital devices. Even fairly tech-savvy people may get lost in this fairly complex tool. Despite the adoption of a totally digital format, as yet, there is no app for Canada’s Food Guide.
• Without specific recommendations for some foods, some nutrients may be difficult to consume in amounts that meet the DRI. For example, removal of the Milk and Alternatives food group (which was present in previous versions of the food guide) may result in suboptimal intakes of calcium and vitamin D.
• Without suggested numbers of servings, some individuals may over- or under-consume some foods. For example, nuts and seeds are healthy but are also high in calories. With no serving size, one could easily consume an excess of calories unintentionally.
• Not all foods that are grouped together are created equal. For example, different vegetables have major differences in their content of vitamins A and C and folate. The food guide provides no emphasis on different types of vegetables.
• The colourful picture is very appealing, but the foods may not be accessible to a lot of Canadians. Strawberries, blueberries, and even tomatoes are expensive even when in season.
• The Eat Well Plate may not be as culturally diverse as intended; it is still to a large extent Eurocentric.
• There is no recommendation for a healthy amount of physical activity.

These are only some of the advantages and limitations. You may come up with others and will have a chance to discuss them later when you do your assignment. But the consensus among nutrition professionals is that this new guide is a step in the right direction. As history has shown, the guide will be continually revised as the science and food supply evolves.

Study Questions

Answer the Study Questions for this section to test your knowledge of what you just learned.

Section 3: Nutrition Information on Food Labels

Introduction

Nutrition information on food labels allows consumers to make informed food choices. Nutrition labelling includes nutrition facts, ingredient lists, nutrition or health claims, food allergen labelling, and date labelling. In Canada, nutrition labelling is mandatory for most food products and is regulated under the Food and Drugs Act and Food and Drug Regulations. Over the next four years, several changes will be appearing on food labels to help consumers identify ingredients in their foods and make healthier food choices.

Objectives

After completing this section, you should be able to

• list five types of information permitted on a food label.
• interpret the information on a nutrition facts label and use % DV to differentiate between foods.
• list two types of nutrition or health claims permitted on a food label.

Key Terms

After completing Section 2.3, you should be able to define and use the following terms in context:

Nutrition Facts Tables

The nutrition facts table is designed to look the same on most prepackaged products. Alternative formatting may be used on small packaging.

Almost all prepackaged food products must display the nutrition facts. Nutrition facts labels are not required for fresh fruit and vegetables; fresh meat, poultry, and fish (but ground meat and poultry must have the nutrition facts); foods prepared or packaged at the grocery store and sold on site (e.g., bakery items, bulk sausages); products with insignificant amounts of all thirteen core nutrients in a normal serving (e.g., coffee beans, tea leaves, herbs, and spices); and alcoholic beverages. Foods that are not prepackaged will not have a nutrition facts table. This includes foods that are served or sold in restaurants and cafeterias, take‑out meals, and meats and cheeses sold at deli counters.

Nutrition facts labels present standard information in a consistent order, including

• serving size.
• number of calories.
• thirteen core nutrients.
• percent daily value (% DV).

All the information in nutrition facts is based on specific portion sizes that may vary between similar foods. The information on serving size in a nutrition facts table is important.

The nutrient values for energy-providing nutrients, fibre, cholesterol, and sodium are presented in absolute amounts (e.g., grams per serving). Even if the nutrient amount is zero, it is listed. Nutrient information is also presented as a percent of a standard called daily value (DV).

The DV is based on the set of nutrition recommendations and RDA that address the population group with the highest needs, which is often males aged 19 to 24 years. However, women have higher iron needs than men, so the DV for iron is based on the needs of an adult woman (i.e., for women aged 19 to 50). The percent daily value (% DV) indicates, at a glance, whether there is a lot or a little of a nutrient per serving of food. The percent DV can be used to compare foods. For example, if you were looking for high‑calcium foods, then a food with 25% DV of calcium would be a better choice than one with only 5%. Generally, you can interpret DV as follows: 5% or less is “a little”; 15% or more is “a lot.”

Daily values for fat and carbohydrates are based on appropriate levels for a 2000‑kilocalorie diet, which is not suitable for many people. For energy intake, the DV ends up being appropriate for a “composite” person, providing only a crude estimate for most adults. Percent DV for fat and carbohydrate cannot be interpreted as percent of kcal or percent of the weight of the food. For example, the nutrition facts table for Chocotastik (see eText, p. 52) has 8% DV for fat. What does this figure of 8% mean? Specifically, it means that one serving contains 8% of the DV for fat. Practically speaking, the value of 8% means this cereal provides a low amount of fat.

There are many more nutrients than the thirteen mandatory ones found in most nutrition facts. Manufacturers may list other nutrients from a defined group, including other vitamins, minerals, types of fat, sugar, alcohols, and starch.

Food labels may also include nutrient content claims, which make relative claims about nutrients in foods, such as “reduced in fat,” “very high source of fibre,” or “source of omega‑3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.” Nutrient content claims usually appear on the front of food packages. Nutrition claims may also include authorized diet‑related health claims, which highlight a relationship between diet and a disease or condition that is supported by sound scientific evidence. One example of a diet‑related health claim is “a healthy diet rich in a variety of fruits and vegetables may help reduce the risk of some types of cancer.” Health Canada regulations require specific wording of a claim to ensure that the claim is applied consistently and is not misleading. The criteria needed to qualify for a diet-related health claim are listed in Table 2-7: Examples of Diet-related Health Claims on Food Labels (p. 56) and on Canada’s Food Guide website, Use Food Labels.

Nutrition and diet‑related health claims usually highlight one nutrient of a food and are optional. Some evidence suggests that food products with nutrition and diet‑related health claims may cost more than products of comparable nutritional value that do not include a claim (Riciutto & Tarasuk, 2005). To assess the overall value of a food, read the nutrition facts and the ingredient list, and check comparable foods. For example, a product that is low in sodium or high in fibre may still be high in fat and calories.

Visit Canada’s Food Guide website for more information about the nutrition facts table.

As mentioned earlier, changes to food labels will appear over the next four to five years. Improvements are being made to the nutrition facts table and the ingredient list to help consumers be more informed about food and make healthier food choices.

Optional: For more information, visit Canada’s Food Guide website to read more about the upcoming food labelling changes.

Study Questions

Answer the Study Questions for this section to test your knowledge of what you just learned.

References